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1 the end of the ages
Христианство: кончина мира -
2 ages
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3 Middle Ages
the Middle Ages — il Medioevo, il Medio Evo
the early, late Middle Ages — l'alto, il basso Medio Evo
* * *( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) Medioevo, Medio Evo* * *nplSee:* * *the Middle Ages — il Medioevo, il Medio Evo
the early, late Middle Ages — l'alto, il basso Medio Evo
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4 Middle Ages
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5 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) Edad MediaMiddle Ages npl: Edad f Media* * * -
6 Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus)
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. c. 23 AD Como, Italyd. 25 August 79 AD near Pompeii, Italy[br]Roman encyclopedic writer on the natural world.[br]Pliny was well educated in Rome, and for ten years or so followed a military career with which he was able to combine literary work, writing especially on historical subjects. He completed his duties c. 57 AD and concentrated on writing until he resumed his official career in 69 AD with administrative duties. During this last phase he began work on his only extant work, the thirty-seven "books" of his Historia Naturalis (Natural History), each dealing with a broad subject such as astronomy, geography, mineralogy, etc. His last post was the command of the fleet based at Misenum, which came to an end when he sailed too near Vesuvius during the eruption that engulfed Pompeii and he was overcome by the fumes.Pliny developed an insatiable curiosity about the natural world. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans made few original contributions to scientific thought and observation, but some made careful compilations of the learning and observations of Greek scholars. The most notable and influential of these was the Historia Naturalis. To the ideas about the natural world gleaned from earlier Greek authors, he added information about natural history, mineral resources, crafts and some technological processes, such as the extraction of metals from their ores, reported to him from the corners of the Empire. He added a few observations of his own, noted during travels on his official duties. Not all the reports were reliable, and the work often presents a tangled web of fact and fable. Gibbon described it as an immense register in which the author has "deposited the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind". Pliny was indefatigable in his relentless note-taking, even dictating to his secretary while dining.During the Dark Ages and early Middle Ages in Western Europe, Pliny's Historia Naturalis was the largest known collection of facts about the natural world and was drawn upon freely by a succession of later writers. Its influence survived the influx into Western Europe, from the twelfth century, of translations of the works of Greek and Arab scholars. After the invention of printing in the middle of the fifteenth century, Pliny was the first work on a scientific subject to be printed, in 1469. Many editions followed and it may still be consulted with profit for its insights into technical knowledge and practice in the ancient world.[br]BibliographyThe standard Latin text with English translation is that edited by H.Rackham et al.(1942– 63, Loeb Classical Library, London: Heinemann, 10 vols). The French version is by A.Further ReadingThe editions mentioned above include useful biographical and other details. For special aspects of Pliny, see K.C.Bailey, 1929–32, The Elder Pliny's Chapters on Chemical Subjects, London, 2 vols.LRDBiographical history of technology > Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus)
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7 Middle Ages
nplthe Middle Ages — średniowiecze nt, wieki pl średnie
* * *( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) średniowiecze -
8 Middle Ages
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9 Middle Ages
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10 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) miðaldir -
11 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) a középkor -
12 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) Idade Média* * *Mid.dle Ag.es[midəl 'eidʒiz] n pl Hist Idade Média. -
13 Middle Ages
ortaçağ* * *( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) Orta Çağ -
14 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) srednji vek* * *[mídleidžis]nounplural srednji vek -
15 Middle Ages
• keskiaika* * *( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) keskiaika -
16 middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) viduslaiki* * *viduslaiki -
17 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) viduramžiai -
18 Middle Ages
medeltiden* * *( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) medeltiden -
19 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) středověk* * *• středověk -
20 Middle Ages
( with the) (the time between the end of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance.) stredovek* * *• stredovek
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